The Cushing’s syndrome with Type Diabetes & Rheumatoid Arthritis

Question: Talk about the Cushings Syndrome with Type Diabetes Rheumatoid Arthritis. Answer: Rate Causes of the Cushings Syndrome Measurements demonstrate that out of each 1 million individuals, 13 of them are influenced by the Cushings condition. It is anyway increasingly basic among ladies when contrasted with men. The condition for the most part presents when an individual is between 25 to 40 years old (Wilson et al, 2014). The Cushings disorder is brought about by raised degrees of the cortisol hormone in the body. This hormone is delivered by the adrenal organs so as to do different jobs in the body. The elements of cortisol for example incorporates; managing circulatory strain, guaranteeing the ordinary working of the cardiovascular framework and further, it encourages the body to react to pressure (Ding et al, 2013). Cortisol in this manner controls protein and fat digestion into vitality yet one builds up the Cushings disorder when the hormone levels go high. Another reason for the Cushings condition incorporates the unnecessary utilization of corticosteroids. Oral corticosteroids taken by people as pre scription in high dosages especially over a significant stretch of time causes this condition (Graversen et al, 2012). Corticosteroids incorporate prednisone which is utilized to treat rheumatoid joint pain, asthma among other fiery conditions; has comparative impacts as those of the cortisol hormone. Since these portions are higher than the measure of cortisol created inside the body, the Cushing disorder happens because of the symptoms of exorbitant cortisol. Hazard Factors The hazard factors for the advancement of the Cushings Syndrome incorporate exogenous utilization of corticosteroids as in the treatment of rheumatoid joint pain for Maureen Smith for the situation study. As portrayed above, prednisone is one of the significant corticosteroids adding to the Cushings condition, as a drug for rheumatoid joint inflammation (Ding et al, 2013). Another hazard factor incorporates the nearness of pituitary adenoma where the pituitary organ secretes unreasonable ACTH that thus invigorates the discharge of abundance cortisol by the adrenal organs (Wilson et al, 2014). This is basic in ladies and is alluded to as endogenous Cushings disorder. Thirdly, the nearness of a tumor that secretes ectopic ACTH in any organ that doesn't regularly emit ACTH will add to its unnecessary nearness in the body and along these lines more cortisol creation to prompt the Cushings Syndrome. Such organs could be the lungs, the thymus organ, thyroid and even the pancreas (Graversen et al, 2012). Adrenal adenoma which is a tumor that influences the adrenal cortex however not dangerous additionally adds to the Cushings disorder. This is on the grounds that adrenal adenoma adds to the creation of cortisol without the control by the ACTH. In any case, adrenocortical carcinomas, for example, kindhearted or potentially nodular adrenal organ development likewise result to the Cushing disorder. Effect on Patient and Family Among the effects the Cushings Syndrome on an individual and their families incorporate the high treatment and the executives expenses of the condition particularly when it is related with other inconvenience like rheumatoid joint pain and diabetes. A superior measure of accounts which could be put to other individual and family use is redirected to settling bills for medicinal services (Torio, 2013). Another effect is that the casualty may likely not have the option to answer to their work environments simply like Maurine Smith probably won't feel satisfactory to work at the pizza eatery. The families individuals including their kids take up the job of providing care all together guarantee their relative is glad (Graversen et al, 2012). Patients who experience the ill effects of the Cushings disorder can endure misery and even uneasiness. The families will likewise experience issues dealing with the sincerely influenced family member. Normal Signs and Symptoms for the Cushings Syndrome Sign/Symptom Pathophysiology 1. Advancement of a bison bump. It is one of the commonest sign and side effect particularly among ladies with the Cushings condition. A wild ox bump happens at the upper back and it is brought about by an aggregation of fats at this specific piece of the body (Ding et al, 2013). The fats amass to shape a fat cushion at the upper back. 2. Decreased general body resistance where people are truly helpless to diseases. The Cushings condition brings about a diminishing in the creation of lymphocytes by the invulnerable framework. The body likewise has a stifled arrangement of antibodies to ward off hurtful microorganisms or potentially life forms (Wilson et al, 2014). Thus, the patients are inclined to an assortment of maladies particularly after a more extended remain with the condition. 3. Round moon face Round moon face is brought about by the testimony of fats inside the midriff, shoulders and upper back (March et al, 2014). The moon face is especially brought about by the affidavit of exorbitant quick over an individual patients face. 4. Corpulence around the storage compartment Truncal corpulence happens among Cushings disorder patients because of the advancement of fat cushions around the storage compartment (Gadelha et al, 2014). At the point when the condition presents happens alongside diabetes, stoutness increments on the grounds that there is diminished separate of fats to glucose, leaving them to collect inside the subcutaneous tissue as fat cushions. 5. Hypertension This is happens as the general reaction to the expanded measure of cortisol levels in the body. In any case, the fundamental factor that adds to the hypertension among the Cushings conditions understanding is liquid maintenance (Ding et al, 2013). The patients experience the ill effects of water and sodium maintenance which achieve this specific hypertension. The narrowing of the veins because of low thickness lipoproteins and plaques the two of which result from horrible eating routine additionally increment the circulatory strain as their lumen restricted up. Basic Classes of Drugs for the Cushings Syndrome Their Physiological Effect Cortisol-emission repressing medications This is a class of medications utilized in rewarding the Cushings Syndrome, which basically repress the emission of the cortisol hormone by the adrenal organs. Specifically, this class of medications hinders steroidogenesis in the body and hence bring down the degrees of cortisol present in blood. These medications incorporate Metyrapone, mitotane, ketoconazole and aminoglutethimide (Wilson et al, 2014). Ketoconazole is right now the most well known medication in the treatment of the Cushings malady. All things being equal, the other cortisol hindering medications can likewise be controlled alone or potentially as blends. Another huge cortisol stifling medication utilized in the treatment of the Cushings disorder is Mifepristone. This specific medication is the most fitting for the treatment of individuals with Cushing illness who additionally have type 2 diabetes (Gonzalez et al, 2016). From the contextual investigation, plainly Maureen Smith has type 2 diabetes that came about beca use of the utilization of corticosteroids as prescription from rheumatoid joint inflammation and her Cushings condition. Mifepristone is likewise endorsed for use by singular patients experiencing glucose prejudice. The medication obstructs the impact of the cortisol hormone on the tissues of a patient. It anyway has a few reactions simply like the remainder of the above talked about cortisol repressing prescriptions. These incorporate spewing, weakness, cerebral pains, queasiness, edema, muscle throbs, and low potassium levels in blood and hypertension (Gadelha et al, 2014). Increasingly genuine reactions may likewise present and these incorporate hepatic poisonousness as well as neurological symptoms. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Suppressing drugs This class of medications is the elective medicine to the cortisol restraining drugs portrayed above, for the treatment of the Cushings disorder. They are anyway not famous decisions as standard drugs for the treatment of this specific condition. These medications explicitly stifle the impact of the Adrenocorticotropic hormone on the adrenal organ to emit cortisol as indicated by Laws et al (2013). They in this manner focus to restrain the ACTH impact on the adrenal organs as opposed to focusing on the cortisol hormone (Gadelha et al, 2014). These medications incorporate for example, cyproheptadine, cabergolin, vasopressin adversaries, valproic corrosive, and PPAR-gamma agonists among others. The most recent drugs under this class incorporate pasireotide which additionally diminishes the creation of the Adrenocorticotropic hormone by a pituitary tumor. Pasireotide is normally controlled in two infusions two times each day. In situations where pituitary organ medical procedure is rend ered ineffective, Pasireotide is the most suggested medicate under this specific class. All things being equal, it has a few reactions among them being sickness, migraines, looseness of the bowels, high glucose, exhaustion in the muscles and joints, and torment in the midsection. Nursing Strategies The nursing care techniques for the Cushings disorder with both rheumatoid joint pain and type 2 diabetes for Maurine Smith in the initial 24 hours after affirmation principally include: bringing down the corticosteroid drug measurements or potentially diminishing cortisol levels in blood, dealing with the high glucose, diminishing danger to wounds and diseases, expanding self-care capacity, improving the honesty of the skin, improving ones self-perception and mental working. As indicated by Wilson et al (2014), crisis nursing techniques and medicine for patients experiencing Cushing disorder must be founded on the reason for this specific condition. In this specific case, unmistakably the primary driver of the condition for Maureen Smith is the utilization of the corticosteroids portions in the treatment of rheumatoid joint pain which she procured at 14 years old years. The impact of her corticosteroid utilize additionally added to the advancement of type 2 diabetes. The nursing tec hniques in this way for her present dangerous intense Cushings condition will incorporate settling the sugar levels yet significantly decrease the utilization of corticosteroid use inside the initial 24 hours of post-admissio

Hassan’s Story Essay

A. Baru is utilizing surface markings to distinguish the sexual orientation of a skull. What two significant kinds of surface markings do bones have? a. The sorrows and openings. B. For what reason are Liu and Hassan astounded to discover a metopic stitch on a grown-up skull? In which skull bone do metopic stitches happen? b. Since directly after birth the left side and right half of the frontal bone are joined by the metopic stitch. They were amazed on the grounds that this stitch ought to have vanished between the ages of six to eight years old. C. What sensitive skeletal structures are found inside the nasal hole that may be absent from an unearthed skull? c. The opposite plate D. How might Hassan and his group have the option to tell the times of the skeletal survives from the lady and infant? d. By the four fundamental stitches, for example, coronal stitch, sagittal stitch, lambdoid stitch and squamous stitches. E. What highlights of the vertebral segment would the bigger skeleton in the stone casket show to demonstrate it was female? e. The vertebral section of a male in around 71 cm (28 in.) for a female the vertebral segment of a female would be around 61 cm (24 in.) F. What bone in the neck district other than cervical vertebrae might be harmed during strangulation or neck injury? f. The hyoid bone. G. On the off chance that the bones of an individual found at the uncovering site were stirred up and out of arrangement, how could the anthropologists figure out which vertebrae were cervical, lumbar or thoracic? g. Since the cervical bones are the littlest, the thoracic bones are bigger than the cervical bones, and the lumbar bones are the biggest. H. For what reason would bones with their hard structure, be dependent upon and give indications of the illness that wrecked this network? h. Since bones will give indications of mileage and can likewise be additionally be tried. I. What structure goes through the transverse foramina of cervical vertebrae that would cause demise whenever harmed as in the child’s skeleton? I. Supply routes

Tell Me About YourselfWays to Answer this Job Interview Question

Tell Me About Yourselfâ€"Ways to Answer this Job Interview Question So, tell me about yourself.”“Ummmm…”“I’m from London, happily married with three kids and I love graphic design.”Almost everybody gets nervous before interviews. This anxiety alone is enough to mess with even the most basic interactions. That’s why this question is often the hardest part of the interview for many people.Regardless of whether you are interviewing for the big CEO position or an entry level administrative assistant position, there are questions that are guaranteed to come up in the job interview. Top on the list is the dreaded “Tell me about yourself.”Despite the fact that you are the most qualified person to answer this question, (let’s face it nobody knows you better than you know yourself) many people have trouble answering this question.This question can also come in any of the following formats:Walk me through your background.Who exactly is [Your Name]?Say something about yourself.What would you like me to know about you?Introduce yourself.Ho w would other people describe you?These are questions that are commonly found at the beginning of the interview before things get all serious about the job expectations of the position, the salary and your abilities.Many people dread this question because it’s unclear what exactly the interviewer is looking for in an answer. Should you talk about your academic qualifications, work experience, family background and upbringing or should you add a little bit of everything in your answer? How long should the answer be?These are just a few of the questions that come to mind when asked this question.The good news is that with good preparation, you can use this question to your advantage. Since it is usually asked at the beginning of the interview, you can use it to set the tone of the interview and highlight your strengths right from the beginning.To most people, this question sounds like an ice breaker and a way to get candidates to give their life stories. The million dollar question is: is that what the potential employer sitting on the other side of the table is looking for?The positioning of this question at the beginning of the interview makes it a very important question. You cannot afford to wing it. If something is wrong with your answer for this question, it can easily mess with the remainder of the interview.That’s why it is important that you prepare adequately for this question. It takes some bit of practice to get it right, but you will be happy that you did. The results are worth the hard work because starting the interview on a good notecould give you abig boost in confidence, something that can kill the anxiety and make your job easy convincing the panel that you are the right man for the job.It’s important to note that the interviewers don’t want to know everything about your life from the day you were born. However, disclosing too little information can leave them wondering what you are hiding.Let’s dive in and see how best you can prepa re for this interview question. WHAT THE INTERVIEWER WANTS TO KNOWThe reason why this seemingly simple question can be such a difficult one for many people is the number of directions it can take.Why are they asking about me?What will they be interested in when I give an answer? Is it my personal life? Work life?How do I best give them the answers that they seek without giving them too much unnecessary information?Let’s start with finding out why they ask this question.For starters, this question is good for building rapport. It gets you talking and they will be able to understand your personality from your responses. However, that’s not what they are really after.Here’s what they really want to know:What are some of the things that are important to you as a person? This question can be used to make you reveal your personality. What do you value most? Is it your job? Your certificates? Your family? It can also be used to check know if you really understood the job posting. They can use your answer to find out what you think is the most important duty of the ideal candidate.How do you view yourself as a professional? The question asked is about you, so you will give your best impression of yourself. Your answer will show how much you believe in yourself and your skills.How do you hope to provide value to the company? Understanding the role you are interviewing for is important, but it’s also important to have an idea of how your skills and experience fit the requirements. Your interviewer hopes to hear that you have a clear picture of what you can do to help the company move forward.Can you think on your feet and come up with an answer to a casual unstructured question? As much as your answer is important, the way you answer it also tells a lot about how you will handle pressure in your new role. They don’t want someone who will freak out in the presence of a customer when put on the spotlight. So your interviewer will also be watching out for any non-verbal signs of tension.What is more important to you? The company’s needs or your needs. Just like it is in anything else in life everybody cares about their own needs. Your interviewer will use your answer to find out if you have placed your own needs above the company’s needs. I know, that’s the natural thing to do. However, putting your needs aside for a while could prove to be beneficial to you. You should answer with both personal and professional information about yourself that shows that you have understood what the company does and its core values.What first impression do you make on people you’ve just met? Once you are hired, you will be a representative of the company whenever you meet an outsider on the line of duty. With this in mind, the interviewer will be examining the impression that you have on new people. Are you confident and articulate or do you look confused and out of place?What kind of thinker and talker are you? Unstructured questions like this one provoke you to think. You intervi ewer will be checking if you are the kind of person who recites information like a robot or someone who conveys passion in their speech. Giving a word for word recitation of sections on your resume will not be beneficial to you.MISTAKES TO AVOID WHEN ANSWERING THIS QUESTIONBefore we look at what your answer should contain and how to package it, let’s take a look at some of the common mistakes made by job seekers when answering this question.Reciting your resume and cover letter. Your interviewer already has a copy of these documents. Although you should highlight some of your relevant past accomplishments, it should not be a regurgitation of your resume or cover letter. In fact, it’s best if you can talk about relevant accomplishments that are not on your resume.Telling your life story. Your friends will be happy to hear about your childhood and all the happy times and challenges you faced growing up, but your interview panel won’t. The main aim of the interview is to fill a p osition so telling them about how growing up in the countryside was fun for you. Save that for later once you are hired.Answering with a question. When asked to talk about yourself, don’t answer with a question. “Well, what would you like to know?” That answer shows that you are not prepared for the interview and that does not help you professionally.Giving a long monologue about yourself. Although they have asked you to talk about yourself, it’s important that you are brief and concise. Have two or three things that you are going to share and keep it short. A minute is fine but don’t go beyond two minutes. Give them a chance to pick whatever part interests them and ask follow-up questions down the line. Don’t feel like you have to give all the information about yourself in this one answer.Giving a one-line answer. As much as you need to be brief, you also need to give useful information. Giving a one-liner shows that you are arrogant and not interested in the job. So av oid answers like “I am John Doe, a graphic designer looking for a company that I can grow with”Talking about your political and religious views. As much as we like to embrace everyone with their differences, some subjects will only raise concerns about your work ethic. So unless you are explicitly asked to share your views about a controversial subject (which is very unlikely), steer clear.  INFORMATION YOUR ANSWER SHOULD HAVENow that all that is out of the way, let’s take a look at the right way of answering this question.There’s one very important thing that you should remember when preparing the answer that you will give for this question in the interview:Nobody cares about you. It’s all about them.Put yourself in their shoes. What are their most pressing needs at that moment? They want to find out enough about you to decide if you are the best candidate for the open position. They obviously have expectations and if you have read the job positing carefully, you should h ave a good idea of who they want.In most cases, since you applied and received an invitation for an interview, and they turned down hundreds of applications, they already want to like you. Your only duty at this point is to confirm that they were right to invite you for that interview.How do you do this?Keep reading.The following questions will help you identify the things that you should include in your answer.WHAT ARE YOUR GREATEST RELEVANT ACHIEVEMENTS?Take some time to list down some of your past achievements. Think back from the time you started working. You can even list any major achievements that you had in college or high school if they are relevant to the job.For example, if you took home the math trophy for two years in a row in high school, that’s a good achievement to list if the job is a numbers job like marketing or accounting.You can show this list to a friend to make sure that you don’t miss any.Once you have all of them listed down, pick one achievement that is relevant to the job you are applying for. Let’s assume that you are applying for a sales manager job and you have been the top salesman at your company for the last six months. That achievement is relevant because it tells them that you have perfected the sales process so you have what it takes to guide others as they try to get there.Now that we have a relevant achievement, let’s move to the next question.WHAT DOES THE COMPANY FIND VALUABLE?You will need to do some digging for this one.Go to the company website and read the content there. Pay close attention to the vision and mission page. Take a look at some of the press releases there to get an idea of any new projects they are working on.You can also look at the company’s pages on social websites to get a feel of what the company values most. Find a way of weaving this into your answer. Here’s an example:Ashley is applying for a Marketing Manager position at ABC Inc. After checking the company website, she finds that AB C values efficiency. Here’s what she can say when asked to introduce herself:“Currently, I work as a marketing coordinator at XYZ Marketing Agency and my duties include evaluation of all our marketing campaigns to make sure that we are getting the best value for every penny spent. Previously, I was in charge of managing social media marketing campaigns for our clients before I was promoted after doubling the ROI on all my cases in less than a month. Although I enjoy the work I do with different clients at XYZ, I’d love the chance to dig deeper and work with one specific company, which is why I’m very excited about this opportunity at ABC Inc.”This example shows that Ashley is passionate about marketing, experienced, qualified and as crazy about efficiency as ABC Inc. is. She has mentioned a past achievement and showed how she can deliver value to the company.The answer also gives the interviewers’ the chance to ask follow-up questions if they require more information abo ut her past while staying relevant to the job she’s applying for.PACKAGING THE ANSWERWith all the things that you need to say in your answer, it can be quite challenging to know how to say it in an interview.Worry not.We have a simple formula that you can use to package all the important details in your answer and present it naturally to your interviewers for the best effect. Here it goes:Start with what you are doing currently. Talk about your current role and some of the duties that you are tasked with. This will show your interviewers that you can be trusted with responsibility.Next, talk about your past roles. You can use this chance to highlight an achievement that you made in a previous role and earn some admiration from them. You can also use the opportunity to show that you are experienced in the position and that you have delivered in the past so you can deliver in future.Finally, finish with talking about your hopes for the future. Needless to say, you should be sure to include the position you are interviewing for and talk about how it is in line with your personal goals. This is the chance to paint a picture of you delivering value to the company in this position. Show your excitement to make a positive move in your career while at the same time making it clear that you will be valuable to the company.HOW TO PREPARE FOR THIS QUESTIONThe key to having an easy time preparing for this question can be summarized in the following  four simple steps:Focus. Dig deep and identify traits that you would like to highlight in your answer. They should be things that paint you in good light. It could be your graduating with honors, your experience or your skills. What would you like the interviewer to remember about you when they are discussing the interviewees? For Ashley in our example above, she had a proven track record and relevant marketing experience.Stick to your script. In the heat of the interview, you might get ideas and get the temptation to wing i t. This might cause you to say something that you have not carefully thought through and it could leave you on the spot.Do not lie. Don’t be too keen on impressing to the extent on cooking abilities that you don’t have.Practice. Once you know what you want to say, take some time to practice it in front of the mirror. You can even have a friend or roommate pretend to be the interviewer and play out different scenarios until you are confident about your statement. Don’t memorize the words, but make sure that you know the things that you are going to highlight.

Assisted Suicide And The Death With Dignity Act - 803 Words

Introduction Physician-assisted suicide (PAS) occurs when a physician facilitates a patient’s death by providing the necessary means and/or information to enable the patient to perform the life-ending act (e.g. the physician provides sleeping pills and information about the lethal dose, while aware that the patient may commit suicide). [Carter, 2015]. According to Death with Dignity.org, Oregon, New Mexico, Vermont, Washington and California along with Montana who administrated the Death with Dignity act determining legality through the decision from the court. These following states are currently considering on accepting the Death with Dignity act: Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, District of Columbia, Hawaii Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Utah and Wisconsin. Physician- assisted suicide is a very controversial act, and the determination of legality depends or ethics, laws, safety , and much more. The principles of autonomy merits the consideration of the person believing that people should get the respect making their own decisions. Should Physician Assisted Suicide be legalized with the support of the principles of autonomy? Supporting Argument In the article, â€Å"From empathy to assisted dying: and argument†, written by Philip A. Berry; supports physician-assisted suicide advocating that physicians should have empathy towards the patients. Berry states, † AnShow MoreRelated The Death With Dignity Act and Physician Assisted Suicide Essay1312 Words   |  6 PagesThe Death With Dignity Act and Physician Assisted Suicide Introduction According to the American Medical Association (1996), physician-assisted suicide (PAS) occurs when a physician facilitates a patient’s death by providing either the means or the information necessary to aid in the patient performing the life-ending act. PAS has had a long and controversial history dating back to the ancient Greeks and Romans. They believed that there was no reason to prolong life if continued pain and sufferingRead MoreThe United States Of America1536 Words   |  7 Pageslegislation allowing physician-assisted suicide under nearly any circumstances was Oregon. (How the Right to Die Came to America - National Center for Life and Liberty) Oregon’s Death with Dignity Act (ODWDA) law would allow dying patients the control to end their own end-of-life-care. 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A popular question that surfaces when this topic is brought

A Glimpse Into The Life Of A Social Worker - 934 Words

A Glimpse Into the Life of a Social Worker Margarita Perez received a Bachelor’s degree in Psychology from York College, The City University of New York. She then went on to receive her Master’s of Social Work degree at San Francisco State University, with a double emphasis on Individuals, Families and Groups, as well as, Child Welfare. She began her social work career as a Mental Health Treatment Specialist at Family Paths, a child abuse prevention and treatment agency. There she gained experience dealing with infant mental health, lack of attachment and the effect of trauma on early childhood. She now works as a Family Treatment Rehabilitation Case Planner at Forestdale Inc, a child welfare agency dedicated to ensuring the safety of all children. Ms. Perez is part of Forestdale Inc’s preventative program, which advocates for families at risk of having their children placed in foster care. She is responsible for working with families who experience certain traumas that might threaten the safety and wellbeing of their children. Her main goal is to promote healthy growth and development within the family and prevent separation of children from their homes. Her responsibilities include visiting families in their homes and providing individual, family and group counseling. She assists her clients with acquiring and/or solving housing and daycare issues. Ms. Perez also advocates for her clients in order to secure services such as public assistance, health insurance andShow MoreRelatedAustralia in the Early 1900s 1180 Words   |  5 Pagesopportunity to success and an egalitarian society. However not all workers proved this to be true. 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Foreign Policy in Bangladesh Free Essays

Bangladesh has a master guideline for foreign policy from its constitution â€Å"friendship with all and malice towards none†. Foreign policy of Bangladesh is one of few sectors that has ever been unreformed since the birth of the nation. Bangladesh is obviously a prospective country of its unique position. We will write a custom essay sample on Foreign Policy in Bangladesh or any similar topic only for you Order Now In view of achieving its prospects, Bangladesh needs significant changes in foreign policy sector. The more the time goes ahead, the more the world becomes interdependent. In this age of globalization, no nation can stay in isolation. All states, therefore, participate in the interplay of the international politics with the specific foreign policies to achieve the goals of the national interests. Therefore the purpose-oriented foreign policy matters for Bangladesh to get prosperity. The very fundamental directions of the constitution of Bangladesh should remain the roots of foreign policy of Bangladesh. So I recommend the goals of foreign policy of Bangladesh in the name of 4Ps: Protection, Progress, Promotion and Peace. From the theoretical perspectives in case of suggested four Ps for Bangladesh foreign policy, realism would theorize the first P-protection; Open Market Economy based on global capitalism theorizes the second P-progress and Nationalism (Bangladeshi) would theorize the third P-promotion. Based on these four Ps, the following foreign policies are recommended as core policies for Bangladesh to march its unique prospective positions in the world and also the today’s world affairs. Under the first P-protection, the main policy would be to protect the sovereignty of the state from all kinds of threats from any sources including next door nations, any state, international corporations/organizations. Overall, Bangladesh should remain as Zero Tolerance Policy dealing with all sorts of threats to its sovereignty of state, citizens and assets. In this regards, foreign policy would work to establish a strong military and intelligence base of Bangladesh in the region. Under the second P-Progress, the main policy would be to gain economic boom out of liberalized and globalized world trade policies. The international trade has been shifting from the Atlantic to the pacific, which make the idea of Asia/Pacific century ever more feasible. Foreign policies of Bangladesh would be to secure the relative frontier roles in the Asian politics. Under the third P- Promotion, the main policy would be to promote Bangladesh as a whole positively in the world so that the citizens of the world can learn and understand the integrity of Bangladesh. Foreign policy would be to create a good image of Bangladesh to the rest of the world by promoting the achievements of the nation and also of the individual citizens like Bangladesh secured its independence by a great war of around nine-month long, Bangladesh is the only country in the world that fought for its language Bengali, Bangladesh is the country that invented the oral saline to cure millions of children worldwide, Bangladesh is one of the nations to achieve major parts of MDGs within the timeframe, Bangladesh is the home of microcredit which has been working as an effective tools of alleviating global poverty. Under the forth P-Peace, the main foreign policy would be to introduce Bangladesh as â€Å"Peace Broker† nation practically in the world. Bangladesh itself would be a fond of peaceful coexistence in the region nay in the world as per matched with other Ps of national interests. These four Ps are also inter-related. After all, foreign policy would secure the position of Bangladesh as â€Å"essential† in the regional and international forums both politically and economically. How to cite Foreign Policy in Bangladesh, Papers

Girl Gravity And Two Kinds Essay Example For Students

Girl Gravity And Two Kinds Essay A mothers love for her children is supposed to be something that never dies. The problem is, this love can be expressed in many ways. Sometimes, thelove is shown in such a way that there is no doubt that this woman would doanything for her offspring. Sometime, this love can be viewed, as a way thatthat the mother is trying to mold her daughter into what she believes is theright way to behave. Other times, the mother is trying her best to makesure that her child is doing HER best. These three types of love areexpressed in the three short stories Girl, Gravity, and TwoKinds. The mother in Girl is portrayed as an overbearing monster. Forsome unknown reason, she has given her daughter many guidelines by which she hasto live by. The reason may be that the mother was a rebel in her childhood. Itcould be that the mother has a vision of what her daughter is to be like. Thereason is unknown. But what is known is that this mother wont take anythingless than what she thinks a lady should be like. To the knowledge of the reader,the child has done nothing wrong to have to receive this reprimanding. The mostdemeaning section of the tirade is when the mother says ` so to preventyou from becoming the slut you are so bent on becoming.' (Kincaid 13) Thismother, for whatever reason it may be, has the idea that her daughter, who sheis SUPPOSED to love with all her heart, has her young mind set on becoming aslut. Every time the daughter tried to throw in a comment, it goes all fornaught. The mother does not even respond to the comment that her child says. Theproblem is this story might have been resolved; it might have not been resolved. No one will know. But, the odds are that if the mother will act like this now,there are no signs of her changing anytime in the near future. The daughter inthis story has to live with the reality that her mother has a mindset of what awoman is. Unfortunately, it appears to be virtually impossible to fill the moldthat her mother has for her. In Gravity, the mother has been put into anawful situation. Her son, who seems to be about 30 years old, has the AIDSvirus. He has grown weak and feeble. He basically relies on his mother for allhis needs. This mother is portrayed as a mother that will (and unfortunately hasto) do anything for her son. Even when he was a little child who could not see,his mother lent him her glasses so he could see Fiddler on the Roof. Shedid this with full knowledge that she would be forced to squint for the entireshowing. The mother herself has her own sicknesses, which she has to deal with. But, even still, she puts her sons well being before hers just like shehas when he was a little child who couldnt see. The mother not only doesthings to help her son physically, she does things to help him emotionally. Whenshe and her son are in a shop purchasing a gift bowl, she tossed the $500 glassbowl to her feeble son. To the surprise of her son and everyone else in thestore, he held on. Theo, the son, was overwhelmed with joy that he didnt seea pile of glass in front of his feet. As good as a mother as she is, she doeshave some flaws. First, she somewhat gives the impression that she has beenannoyed with the situation. She also feels that people are always looking downon them. Eventually, it is assumed that the son will pass away. To this day, nocure for AIDS has been found. No matter what, Theo, has always known, and alwayswill know, that his mother would have moved the world to see him with a smile onhis face. After all, she had been doing whatever it took to make him happy sincehe was a little child. Two Kinds is a story in which a mother believesthat her daughter could be the absolute best at something as long as she puther mind to it. Unfortunately for the mother, she and her daughter did not seeeye to eye in this. The mother in this story is a Chinese immigrant who leftbasically everything to start her life over in the USA. She has always had thebelief that anyone can become anything they wanted in the US as long as they puttheir mind to it. She would sit in front of the TV or read a magazine and seeall these child prodigies. Whether it be Shirley Temple on the Ed Sullivanshow or a three-year-old boy who could name all the capitals in the UnitedStates and even the capitals of some European countries, the mother had her mindset that that could be her daughter. Her daughter, has the opposite belief. Shebelieves that there is no conceivable way that she could become one of theseprodigies. Her mother tests her intelligence as well as her musical abilit y, butit all is to no avail. After seeing a piano recital on the Ed SullivanShow, her mother made up her mind that her daughter was going to be aworld-renowned pianist. Her mother signed her up for lessons with an old man intheir apartment building. Since her daughter believed that it was impossible forher to become to prodigy in piano, she didnt try anything close to hermaximum ability. Then, during a musical showcase, her daughter tried to performa song. It was a disgrace. There were mistakes left and right. It broke hermothers heart to see that her daughter wasnt great at something. Soonafter the disaster at the recital, Nikan had a fight with her mother about thewhole piano situation. The fight got to the point that Nikan said to her motherThen I wish I werent your daughter. I wish you werent my mother.(Tan 34) Her mother was in complete shock over what she had just heard. Theevents that took place that afternoon were never mentioned again. The two hadmoved on almost like it nev er happened. Her mother no longer pushed her tobecome something her daughter believed she never could be. She either acceptedher daughter for what she was, or she finally realized that her daughter had nodesire, in anyway shape or form, to become a star. She didnt want to live theAmerican Dream. Mothers do what they feel best for their children. Maybethe children do not believe that they are meaning well. But, if you look deepinto the heart of the situation, you will see that love is beingexpressed.

Catch 22 Essays - Yossarian, Catch-22, Doc Daneeka, Orr,

Catch 22 Joseph Heller satirizes, among other matters, red tape and bureaucracy in his first novel, Catch-22. The novel concerns itself with a World War II bombardier named Yossarian who suddenly realizes the danger of his position and tries various means to extricate himself from further missions. Yossarian is driven crazy by the Germans, who keep shooting at him when he drops bombs on them, and by his American superiors, who seem less concerned about winning the war than they are about getting promoted. Heller spent eight years writing Catch-22, is a former student at three universities--New York, Columbia and Oxford--and a former teacher at Pennsylvania State College. From 1942 to 1945 he served as a combat bombardier in the Twelfth Air Force and was stationed on the island of Corsica where he flew over 60 combat missions. That experience provided the groundwork for this novel. (Way, 120) (Usborne) The protagonist and hero of the novel is John Yossarian, a captain in the Air Force and a lead bombardier in his squadron, but he hates the war. During the latter half of World War II, Yossarian is stationed with his Air Force squadron on the island of Pianosa, near the Italian coast and the Mediterranean Sea. (Heller) The squadron is thrown thoughtlessly into brutal combat situations and bombing runs on which it is more important for them to capture a good aerial photograph of an explosion than to destroy their target. Their colonels continually raise the number of missions they are required to fly before being sent home so that no one is ever sent home. Heller's satire targets a variety of bureaucrats, the military-industrial complex, and the business ethic and economic arrangements of American society. Humor rising out of the crazy logic of modern warfare hits squarely on the mark. (Hicks 32). The following passage demonstrates the humor and enlightens the reader about the book's title and the major cause of Yossarian's problems: Yossarian looked at him soberly and tried another approach. " Is Orr crazy?" "He sure is," Doc Daneeka said. "Can you ground him?" "I sure can. But first he has to ask me to. That's part of the rule." "Then why doesn't he ask you to?" "Because he's crazy, " Doc Daneeka said. " He has to be crazy to keep flying combat missions after all the close calls he's had. Sure, I can ground him. But first he has to ask me to." "That's all he has to do to be grounded?" "That's all. Let him ask me." "And then you can ground him?" Yossarian asked. "No. Then I can't ground him." "You mean there's a catch?" "Sure there's a catch," Doc Daneeka replied. "Catch-22. Anyone who wants to get out of combat duty isn't really crazy." Most of the supporting characters in Catch-22 are cardboard figures that are only distinctive to the reader by their inane obsessions. Each lives with a particularly contorted view of the war in which he believes that he can function in the world as he pleases and that his dealings will achieve his objectives. (Kennard 83) The fantastically powerful mess officer, Milo controls an international black market syndicate and is revered in obscure corners all over the world. He ruthlessly chases after profit and bombs his own men as part of a contract with Germany. Milo insists that everyone in the squadron will benefit from being part of the syndicate, and that "everyone has a share." The ambitious, unintelligent colonel in charge of Yossarian's squadron, Colonel Cathcart, wants to be a general. He tries to impress his superiors by bravely volunteering his men for dangerous combat duty whenever he gets the chance. He continually raises the number of combat missions required of the men before they can be sent home. Lieutenant Milo Minderbinder, the mess officer, is the supreme champion of the profit motive and free enterprise. He knows how to buy eggs for 7 cents and to sell them at a profit for 5 cents. He contrives with Axis agents to bomb his own airfield when the Germans make him a reasonable offer: cost plus 6 per cent. He does this because he desperately needs more funds in his misguided quest to corner the Egyptian cotton market. Milo's loyalties lay in general with capitalistic enterprise and specifically with M & M Enterprises. He lives by the principle that "what's good for the syndicate is good for the country," despite the diametrically opposed arrangement of his position and his philosophy. (Seltzer 298-99) Colonel Cathcart tries to scheme his way ahead;

The Glass Menagerie, a Play by Tennessee Williams

The Glass Menagerie, a Play by Tennessee Williams The Glass Menagerie  play is a melancholy family drama written by Tennessee Williams. It was first performed on Broadway in 1945, meeting with astounding box-office success and a Drama Critics Circle Award. The Characters In the introduction of The Glass Menagerie, the playwright describes the personalities of the drama’s main characters. Amanda Wingfield: Mother of two adult children, Tom and Laura. â€Å"A little woman of great vitality clinging frantically to another time and place...†Ã¢â‚¬Å"Her life is paranoia†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å"Her foolishness makes her unwittingly cruel†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å"There is tenderness in her slight person†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Laura Wingfield: Six years out of high school. Incredibly shy and introverted. She fixates on her collection of glass figurines. She has â€Å"failed to establish contact with reality†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å"A childhood illness has left her crippled, one leg slightly shorter than the other†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å"She is like a piece of her own glass collection, too exquisitely fragile†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Tom Wingfield: The poetic, frustrated son who works at a mindless warehouse job, supporting his family after his father left home for good. He also serves as the play’s narrator. â€Å"His nature is not remorseless†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Ã¢â‚¬Å"To escape from a trap (his overbearing mother and crippled sister) he has to act without pity.† Jim O’Connor: The gentleman caller who has dinner with the Wingfields during the second part of the play. He is described as a â€Å"nice, ordinary young man.† Setting The entire play takes place in the Wingfield’s meager apartment, located next to an alley in St. Louis. When Tom begins narrating he draws the audience back to the 1930s. Plot Summary Mrs. Wingfield’s husband abandoned the family â€Å"a long time ago.† He sent a postcard from Mazatlan, Mexico that simply read: â€Å"Hello – and Good-bye!† With the absence of the father, their home has become emotionally and financially stagnant. Amanda clearly loves her children. However, she constantly reprimands her son about his personality, his fledgling job, and even his eating habits. Tom: I haven’t enjoyed one bite of this dinner because of your constant directions on how to eat it. It’s you that makes me rush through meals with your hawk-like attention to every bite I take. Even though Tom’s sister is painfully shy, Amanda expects Laura to be more outgoing. The mother, in contrast, is very sociable and reminisces about her days as a southern belle who once received seventeen gentlemen callers in a single day. Laura has no hopes or ambitions for her future. She quit her typing class because she was too shy to take the speed exam. Laura’s only apparent interest seems to be her old music records and her â€Å"glass menagerie,† a collection of animal figurines. Meanwhile, Tom is itching to leave the household and seek adventure in the wide-open world, instead of being held prisoner by his dependent family and a dead-end job. He often stays out late at night, claiming to go to the movies. (Whether or not he watches the movies or engages in some sort of covert activity is debatable). Amanda wants Tom to find a suitor for Laura. Tom scoffs at the idea at first, but by evening he informs his mother that a gentleman caller will be visiting the following night. Jim O’Connor, the potential suitor, went to high school with both Tom and Laura. During that time, Laura had a crush on the handsome young man. Before Jim visits, Amanda dresses in a beautiful gown, reminding herself of her once-glorious youth. When Jim arrives, Laura is petrified to see him again. She can barely answer the door. When she finally does, Jim shows no trace of remembrance. Out on the fire escape, Jim and Tom discuss their futures. Jim is taking a course on public speaking to become an executive. Tom reveals that he will soon be joining the merchant marines, thereby abandoning his mother and sister. In fact, he purposefully failed to pay the electricity bill in order to join the seaman’s union. During dinner, Laura – faint with shyness and anxiety – spends most of the time on the sofa, away from the others. Amanda, however, is having a wonderful time. The lights suddenly go out, but Tom never confesses the reason! By candlelight, Jim gently approaches the timid Laura. Gradually, she begins to open up to him. He is delighted to learn that they went to school together. He even remembers the nickname he gave to her: â€Å"Blue Roses.† Jim: Now I remember – you always came in late. Laura: Yes, it was so hard for me, getting upstairs. I had that brace on my leg – it clumped so loud! Jim: I never heard any clumping. Laura (wincing at the recollection): To me it sounded like thunder! Jim: Well, well, well. I never even noticed. Jim encourages her to be more self-confident. He even dances with her. Unfortunately, he bumps a table, knocking over a glass unicorn figurine. The horn breaks, making the figurine just like the rest of the horses. Surprisingly, Laura is able to laugh about the situation. She clearly likes Jim. Finally, he declares: Somebody needs to build your confidence up and make you proud instead of shy and turning away and- blushing- Somebody ought to- ought to- kiss you, Laura! They kiss. For a moment, the audience might be lured into thinking that everything will work out happily. For a moment, we can imagine: Jim and Laura falling in love.Amanda’s dreams for Laura’s security coming true.Tom finally escaping the â€Å"trap† of family obligations. Yet, a moment after the kiss, Jim backs away and decides, â€Å"I shouldn’t have done that.† He then reveals that he is engaged to a nice girl named Betty. When he explains that he will not be back to visit again, Laura bravely smiles. She offers him the broken figurine as a souvenir. After Jim leaves, Amanda scolds her son for bringing an already-spoken-for gentleman caller. As they fight, Tom exclaims: Tom: The more you shout about my selfishness to me the quicker I’ll go, and I won’t go to the movies! Then, Tom assumes the role of the narrator as he did in the play’s beginning. He explains to the audience how he soon left his family behind, running away just as his father did. He spent years traveling abroad, yet something still haunted him. He escaped the Wingfield household, but his dear sister Laura was always on his mind. The Final Lines Oh, Laura, Laura, I tried to leave you behind me, but I am more faithful than I intended to be! I reach for a cigarette, I cross the street, I run into the movies or a bar, I buy a drink, I speak to the nearest stranger- anything that can blow your candles out! For nowadays the world is lit by lightning! Blow out your candles, Laura – and so good-bye†¦

Re-write of Curriculum Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Re-write of Curriculum - Essay Example The element of time contributed to the great success of the workshop. Teaching the workshop in a five-day intensive allowed me to present the information in a more thorough and I believe cohesive way. I feel that the set up of the workshop, being intensive, created an outlet which allowed the participants to leave behind their â€Å"normal life† and delve into this process of yoga and leadership. The participants came ready and expecting this type of process to happen. They showed enthusiasm and eagerness to learn as much as they can during this five-day immersion in yoga and the Integrated Yogic Leadership Model. Because they had the same purpose, an instant connection was formed amongst the participants that greatly contributed to the development of a peaceful and harmonious relationship within the group. I feel that this five-day intensive workshop gave enough time for students to walk away from the mundane cares of the world, to listen and learn of new tools to support the m on their journey to becoming a leader. At the end of the workshop they returned to their own worlds confident and renewed, armed with a new perspective on leadership. To better understand the curriculum I will describe each day’s intention and briefly explain the experiences. Again, referring to the section of Emerging Adults where I explained the importance of highly experiential exercises for this age group. This five-day intensive workshop was held on June 6-10, 2010 at Kripalu Center for Yoga & Health, the largest holistic retreat center in North America. This group of 19 emerging adults gathered to delve into this curriculum. Throughout the entire workshop the participants would go through an experiential exercise then move into a dyad or triad share and then come back to the larger group and have a group share. The sessions were: morning session 8:30-11:30am; afternoon session 1:30-4:00. Yoga sessions were scheduled in the afternoons at 4:15-5:45 and in the

Interventions Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Interventions - Research Paper Example g programs is enlarged to take in the actual job requirements vis-Ã  -vis the knowledge and skill levels on an individual basis, whereby the learning needs of the individual are identified, and the training program removes this deficit in the individual (Buckley & Caple, 2010, p.108). Analyses of the training needs are from two perspectives. The first perspective relates to the knowledge and skills required for the job or task, while the second perspective pertains to the specific learning needs of the individual for the job or task. The analyses provide a list of knowledge and skills that need to be delivered to the individual. The list is then translated into the behavioral objectives of the training, which paves the way for opting for the most appropriate sequence for delivering the training needs. Transfer of the training is achieved through putting into practice the knowledge and skills received through the training at the workplace. No training is complete in the absence of evaluation of the exercise. Evaluation of the training is done through examining the effectiveness of the training and the value provided by the training (Buckley & Caple, 2010, p.108). The system level at which one-to-one training is most applicable is when the individual is about to start on a new job or task assigned. This may occur when a new employee joins the organization, and needs to be trained on the new job. Alternatively, an existing employee may be assigned a new job function or a new job task. In both these eventualities one-to-one training is the most appropriate training method (Buckley & Caple, 2010, p.108). There are three elements involved in the best practices for one-to-one training. The first element is delivering the training at the right time. Immediately prior to an individual undertaking a new job or task is the right time to deliver the training. The second element is delivering the training at the right place. By right place, the meaning pertains to giving

Relationship Between HRM and Employee Attitude

Relationship Between HRM and Employee Attitude The relationship between HRM practice and employee work-related attitudes Introduction The concept of human resource management (HRM) has received focussed attention for around 20 years, with the catalyst being that many US companies found they were being rivalled and in some instances overtaken, in markets they had dominated (Ehrlich, 1994, p. 492). As Lodge (1985, p. 319) observes: By the early 1980s there was still little disagreement that US corporate managers, employees and trade unions would have to change their ways in order to compete successfully for markets in America and abroad. Harvard university academics introduced a new compulsory component of HRM into their MBA syllabus and reinforced this so-called Harvard Model with influential books and articles (Beer et al., 1984; Walton, 1985b; Walton and Lawrence, 1985). While there would surely have been a genuine desire to help US business, US society, and even US employees, there was also a long-term effort to ensure that the Harvard Business School faculty provided leadership in human resource management (Walton and Lawrence, 1985, p. xx). The Harvard concept stresses that HRM should lead to employee commitment not simply as a means to employer objectives of improved productivity and profits, but because the fulfilment of many employee needs is taken as a goal rather than merely a means to an end (Walton, 1985a, p. 49). At about the same time as the Harvard concept was being developed another viewpoint was being promulgated by academics who supported a strategic concept of HRM, with the major work edited by Fombrun et al. (1984). This work emphasises that the four generic human resource activities of all organisations: selection/promotion/placement process; reward process; development process; and appraisal process (Tichy et al., 1984, p. 26) need to be strategically aligned with the organisations overall strategic objectives. Hard and soft HRM British writers have focused on the differences between the Harvard commitment concept of HRM and the strategic HRM concept. Keenoy (1990, p. 368) sees the Harvard concept as philosophically grounded in the recognition of multiple stakeholders and the belief that the practice and benefits of HRM can be achieved through neo-pluralist mechanisms, while the strategic concept is almost uniformly unitarist in orientation and displays a quite singular endorsement of managerial values. The former is frequently referred to as soft HRM, while the latter is hard HRM. In theory, soft HRM fulfils employee needs as an end in itself, and the favourable attitudes generated from the use of appropriate HRM practices (Guest, 1997) together with communication, motivation and leadership (Storey, 1987, p. 6), result in commitment to the organisation and improved performance. Hard HRM is only concerned with the effective utilisation of employees (Guest, 2002) and emphasises the quantitative, calculative and business strategic aspects of managing the head count resource in as natural a way as for any other economic factor (Storey, 1987, p. 6). If the reality of soft HRM practice was that it produced the benefits referred to in the rhetoric of academic evangelists such as Richard Walton then it should be highly favoured by both employees and employers. Questions have been raised by a number of researchers, however, about the ability of soft HRM to achieve these benefits. There are two concerns. The first is that the real motive behind its introduction is to undermine unions (Sisson, 1994). Indeed, going back to the introduction of the Harvard concept of soft HRM, Lawrence (1985, p. 362) writes about a seminal colloquium on HRM between 35 senior executives and Harvard academics. He claims that the question as to whether HRM was designed to keep the union out was emphatically denied, and he protested that all but three of the firms represented were at least partially unionised, with several having had a significant number of units of both kinds, with their older plants unionised and the newer ones not. An unreasonable interpr etation therefore would be that these leaders of commitment HRM will happily dispense with unions given the opportunity. Indeed, Lawrence (1985, p. 362) admits that there was a general view that in a well-managed unit with decision-sharing, a union was not needed to represent employee interests. Guest (1990, p. 389) concludes, the main impact of HRM in the United States may have been to provide a smokescreen behind which management can introduce non-unionism or obtain significant concessions from trade unions. The second concern is that meeting the needs of employees has never been an objective in itself, and has simply been the normative view of what Harvard academics would like to see as the employment relationship. Truss et al. (1997, p. 70) in a study of soft and hard models of HRM, concluded that even if the rhetoric of HRM is soft, the reality is almost always hard, with the interests of the organisation prevailing over those of the individual. Similar conclusions have been reached by Keenoy (1990), Poole and Mansfield (1992), Guest (1995) and Legge (1995a, b, 1998). If the soft model of HRM has validity, then there should be a clear relationship between the experience of soft HRM practice and positive employee attitudes (reflecting their needs are being met) and increasing employee commitment as well as improved productivity. Surprisingly, however, most of the research and reporting on HRM has ignored the views of employees. Legge (1998, p. 14) points out: when reading accounts of HRM practice in the UK and North America it is noticeable the extent to which the data are (literally) the voices of management. Guest (1999, p. 5) agrees, claiming that from its conception human resource management reflected a management agenda to the neglect of workers concerns. Some studies have considered employee reactions to HRM (Gibb, 2001; Appelbaum and Berg, 2000; Mabey et al., 1998) but Guest (2002, p. 335) is perceptive in his criticism that a feature of both advocates and critics of HRM is their neglect of direct evidence about the role and reactions of w orkers. Even the exceptions noted which gave employee reactions to HRM did not relate the employee experience of HRM practices to their reactions, and Guest (1997) argues for a research agenda that addresses this gap. This paper aims to contribute to this gap by fulfilling two major objectives. The first is to add to the limited number of studies which have tested to see if there is a relationship between HRM practice and positive employee attitudes. The second objective is to see if there is a significantly stronger relationship between HRM practice and employee attitudes if employee perceptions of HRM practice are taken as the measure of HRM rather than employer perceptions, which has been the approach taken in general by previous researchers. HRM practice and employee work-related attitudes The soft model of HRM, as stated previously, suggests a relationship exists between the use of appropriate HRM practices and positive employee attitudes, and while theoretically these relationships remain poorly developed (Guest, 1997, 2001), a number of attitudes are nonetheless widely considered to be an outcome of soft HRM. For example, levels of job satisfaction, which is the affective perception that results from the achievement of desired outcomes (Harber et al., 1997), are found to be related to levels of HRM practice (Guest, 2002; Ting, 1997). High levels of employee commitment have also been found to be related to the use of appropriate HRM practice (Guest, 2002), and results from investing in HRM practices which benefit employees. For example, the provision of opportunities for training and skill development benefits the employee by equipping them with the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to function autonomously and responsibly (Guest, 2002). Furthermore, it impro ves retention and enables them to cope with change in the work environment (Guest, 2002). Organisational fairness is the term used to describe the role of fairness as it directly relates to the workplace and is concerned with the ways employees determine if they have been treated fairly in their jobs and the ways in which those determinations influence other work-related variables (Moorman, 1991, p. 845). The HRM systems, policies, and procedures that operate in an organisation have been identified as impacting on an individuals perceptions of bias and fairness (Kurland and Egan, 1999; Greenberg, 1990). Studies show that where employees believe they are treated fairly in the workplace then they hold positive attitudes towards the organisation (Moorman, 1991), whereas HRM practices that are perceived to be unfair have been found to result in the employee feeling bewildered and betrayed and thus less committed (Schappe, 1996). As far as the relationship between HRM practice and employee attitudes is concerned, the HRM practice dimension has been measured by collecting data from employers in one of the two ways using additive measures of HRM practice or self-reports about the extent to which particular HRM practices have been operationalised. A possible third approach would be to collect employee views about the operationalisation of HRM practice and then relate these reactions to their attitudes. These approaches are described below. The additive approach To date the most common approach for assessing the relationship between HRM practice and employee work-related attitudes is the additive approach. This involves employers indicating, using a yes/no response format, which HRM practices from a predetermined list currently operate in their organisations. The yes responses are then added together, and the assumption is that a higher sum indicates better HRM. Researchers using the additive approach usually correlate the total number of practices with the HRM outcomes being examined. Research exploring this relationship show a strong correlation between high numbers of HRM practice and positive employee attitudes (Fiorito, 2002; Guest, 1999; Guest and Conway, 2002; Appelbaum and Berg, 2000). While this approach is frequently used, it has attracted criticism (Fiorito, 2002; Guest, 1997, 2002). The additive approach is very simplistic. If an employer claims a practice is utilised there is no differentiation on the basis on how well, or to what extent the practice exists. For example, there could be token training and development, or a high level of commitment to a professional and effective training and development programme. Both examples are credited as a yes. This perceived weakness has led some researchers to use employer self-reports about the strength of HRM practice. Employer self-reports about the strength of HRM practice Guest and Peccei (1994) suggest that an improvement on the additive approach is to assess the extent or strength of practice using response bands such as those contained in Likert scales. Such an approach sees employers self-reporting, either on the extent they consider particular HRM practices to be effective (Delaney and Huselid, 1996), or alternatively on the extent to which HRM practices have been operationalised (i.e. to what extent practices are practised) in their workplace (Kane et al., 1999). Guest (2001, p. 1099) claims further research is needed to test the extent that employer and employee views on HRM practices coincide or differ. Specifically he suggests: There is now a need for more research comparing the responses of managers responsible for developing and overseeing HRM practice and employees to identify levels of agreement about the operation of practices such evidence as it is possible to glean from reports about levels of autonomy and consultation suggest that levels of agreement might be quite low. Support for this assertion has already been found. For example, Appelbaum and Bergs (2000) study comparing supervisor and employee perceptions about participative initiatives in US organisations found wide differences. Similarly, Kane et al. (1999) also found evidence of perceptual differences about HRM between different organisational stakeholders. While managers and employers are important stakeholders, so too are employees. This has led to a strong call for employee voice to be heard in HRM research (Guest, 2001). Employee self-reports about the strength of HRM practice Given the apparent perceptual differences between employers and employees perceptions of HRM then a third approach that could be used would see employees reports on the strength of operationalised HRM practice analysed in relation to their levels of work-related attitudes. There is now growing support for assessing HRM from the employee perspective emerging in the literature (Fiorito, 2002; Gibb, 2001; Guest, 2001), and given that where the concern is employee attitudes, then it is intuitively logical to relate that to employee rather than employer perceptions of the effectiveness of HRM policies and practices. Method The most common approach employed in studies assessing the relationship between HRM practice and employee work-related attitudes is the survey (Cully et al., 2000; Guest, 1999), and this is the method of data collection used in this study. Four areas of HRM practice are examined good and safe working conditions, training and development, equal employment opportunities (EEO), and recruitment and selection. These areas of HRM have been selected because they have previously been identified as those likely to have the greatest impact on employee behaviour and attitudes (Guest, 2001). Three employee work-related attitudes are examined organisational commitment, job satisfaction and organisational fairness. These attitudes are generally considered to be desirable outcomes that result from the use of soft HRM (Meyer and Smith, 2000; Guest, 1997). Measurement Three approaches are used to measure HRM practice an additive measure completed by the employer, and two perceptual measures, one completed by employers and one completed by employees. All three measures relate to practices characterised in the literature as soft HRM or best practice HRM (Guest, 1999; Guest and Peccei, 1992; Johnson, 2000; Kane et al., 1999). They are employee-centred (i.e. they should produce benefits for employees when operationalised), and thus should impact on employee work-related attitudes. The additive measure, as stated, is the one most commonly used in research of this type. The additive measure used in this study asks employers to indicate, using a yes/no response format, which practices, from a comprehensive list of 80 practices (20 for each functional area covered), currently operate in their organisation (for example, Do you consult employees on their training needs?). A 20-item scale consisting of statements about HRM practice is used to assess the strength of HRM practices (five items for each of the four functional areas). Respondents are asked to indicate, using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree, the extent they consider each practice occurs in their organisation, for example, EEO is promoted within this organisation (see Appendix 1 for a full list of statements). The same scale is used for both the employer and the employee groups, with the wording amended to reflect their different perspectives. Employer and employee assessments of HRM using this measure are, therefore, concerned with the judgements these groups make about the extent a particular HRM practice has been operationalised in the workplace. The ÃŽ ± coefficients for the five item measures relating to each of the four areas of HRM practice examined ranged from 0.83 to 0.88, suggesting high internal consistency exists (Browne, 2000). The s tatements about HRM practice on the perceptual measure closely reflect the ones used in the additive measure, but there is not a direct correspondence as that would have resulted in an excessively long measure. Three widely accepted measures of employee attitudes are used. Guest (1997) suggests organisational commitment should be measured using the standard measure developed by Mowday et al. (1979) the organisational commitment questionnaire (OCQ) because this scale captures the extent the employee identifies with the organisation, their desire to remain in the organisation and their willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organisation. An adapted and shortened version of the OCQ is used in this study to measure organisational commitment. Again, respondents are asked to indicate the extent to which they agree with each of the statements using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree (ÃŽ ±=0.8535). To measure job satisfaction, an adapted and shortened form of the Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967) is used. The scale has six items and respondents are asked to indicate how satisfied they are with respect to each of the statements, using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1=very dissatisfied to 5=very satisfied (ÃŽ ±=0.8664). While organisational fairness has two dimensions distributive and procedural this study is concerned only with procedural fairness and HRM policy and practice. The measure used is an adapted and shortened six-item version of the procedural justice scale used by Moorman (1991). This measures employees perceptions about the way formal procedures are carried out. Respondents are asked to indicate the extent to which they agree with each of the statements using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree (ÃŽ ±=0.9160). Employer and employee respondents were also asked to provide a range of demographic information. Analysis Data are analysed using SPSS, Version 11, using matched employer and aggregated employee data from 37 organisations. Correlations, using Pearsons r, are completed to explore the relationships between HRM practice and employee attitudes. The multiple linear regression technique is used to explore the differential impacts of the three approaches being tested. The sample In total, 234 organisations were originally contacted to participate in this study. A total of 40 organisations agreed to participate. The person most responsible for operationalising HRM practice was requested to complete the employer survey. Employee participation was voluntary, and the company fully endorsed their participation. The employer participant was requested to distribute the surveys to a representative sample of their workforce, in terms of occupational classification, ethnicity and gender. The targeted population of employees consisted of a total of 1,075 full- and part-time employees from the 40 participating organisations. A total of 626 employees responded (a response rate of 58 per cent) by completing the survey and returning it in the reply-paid envelope provided. In total, 37 usable matched sets of data were obtained. These 37 matched data sets comprise one completed employer questionnaire (total usable employer responses=37) and on average 15 employee questionnai res for each organisation (total usable employee responses=572). The number of actual employee responses received for each organisation varied with workplace size, and ranged from eight to 31. The demographics for the employer and employee samples are reported in Table I. New Zealand is a relatively small country and organisations employing in excess of 100 employees are usually classified as large, with those having between 50 and 99 employees classified as medium and organisations with under 50 employees as small. Three-fifths of the organisations participating in this study can be classified as large; one-fifth are medium, and the remaining five small. Of the 37 participating organisations, 19 are located in the private sector, 18 in the public sector. Around 35 per cent of the participating organisations are located in the service industry, with this group being evenly represented across both sectors. All other organisations are classified in the manufacturing, transport, retail, sales, education and health industries. Both the employer and the employee samples are reasonably a representative of organisations and the composition of the workforce in New Zealand, with the only notable exception being the employee sample is skewed in terms of occupation towards professional and semi-professional groups. Results The first analysis examines the relationship between additive measures of HRM practice and attitudes. The number of practices for each functional area varied considerably between organisations. Generally it is found that there are relatively high levels of practice for the areas of good and safe working conditions (M=15.95, SD=3.22), training and development (M=16.77, SD=2.76), along with recruitment and selection (M=16.52, SD=2.50). EEO is the one area, on the other hand, where a considerably lower mean level of practice exists (M=12.17, SD=5.96). According to prior research, high numbers of HRM practice are associated with positive employee attitudes (Guest, 1999). The results of the analysis for this relationship are reported in Table II. These findings differ from those previously reported. Using aggregated employee means, when levels of organisational commitment (M=3.72, SD=0.78), job satisfaction (M=3.72, SD=0.79) and organisational fairness (M=3.70, SD=0.86) are correlated with the combined additive measure of HRM practice, the results show that higher index scores in the number of HRM practices are not related to higher levels of organisational commitment (r=0.155, df=35, p=>0.05), job satisfaction (r=0.085, df=35, p=>0.05) or organisational fairness (r=0.146, df=35, p=>0.05). When this relationship is examined by functional area the correlations are also found not to be significant. Next the relationship between HRM practice and employee attitudes is examined using first employer self-reports, and second employee self-reports. These results are also reported in Table II. Statistically significant correlations are found to exist between the three attitudes measured and employee assessments of HRM practice for all the functional areas examined. However, no significant correlations are found between employer self-reports about the strength of HRM practice and employee attitudes. Data are then analysed using a regression technique, enabling the predictive qualities of each of the three approaches for assessing HRM practice to be explored. The model used for regressions is shown in Figure 1. All the measures of HRM practices were entered into a multiple regression[1] equation so that the character of the relationship between different measures of HRM practice and employee attitudes could be explored. It is found that nearly 51 per cent of the variance in organisational commitment (R 2=0.506, p The results of the regressions for the three measures of HRM practice, along with the three measures of employee attitudes, are presented in Table III. When the results of the regression for the three different measures of HRM practice are analysed it becomes evident that employee assessments have the greatest level of predictive power for attitudes. The regression reveals that numbers of HRM practice and employer assessments about the strength of HRM practice account for very little of the variance in attitudes. On the other hand, employee assessments of HRM practice appear to be very influential. Around 47 per cent of the variance in organisational commitment is explained by employee assessments of practice across the four HRM areas examined, with even larger and equally significant levels of variance being explained by this for job satisfaction and organisational fairness. If we exclude employee assessments related to EEO from the analysis, as it uniformly records the lowest ÃŽ ² across all three attitudes, the ÃŽ ² statistic for the remaining three functional areas of HRM practice implies that for every increment in employee assessments, levels of attitudes increase by between 0.17 and 0.34. The most statistically significant and consistent increments are in relation to employee assessments of good and safe working conditions, along with training and development, and these are found to apply to all aspects of work-related attitudes measured. Also worth noting is that, not surprisingly, assessments of recruitment and selection practices accounted for the largest variance in levels of organisational fairness. Discussion and concluding remarks Consistent with the work of Appelbaum and Berg (2000), Cully et al. (2000) and Guest (1999), this study also finds that a significant relationship exists between HRM practice and employee work-related attitudes. There is a strong statistically significant relationship when HRM is researched from the employee perspective. However, there was no significant relationship when HRM practice was measured using the additive approach or employer self-reports. These results have implications for current approaches used to assess the HRM practice-employee work-related attitudes relationship. This study demonstrates that by far the greatest correlate of employee attitudes are employees own assessments of the strength of HRM practice. Interestingly, higher levels of HRM practice, using an additive measure, are not found to be significantly associated with attitudes across any of the four functional areas of HRM examined. In fact, it is revealed that higher levels of HRM practice are in some cases related to decreased levels of job satisfaction and organisational fairness. For example, looking at the data for each functional HRM area, it is possible that higher levels of EEO practice may actually have no, or even a negative, effect on employee attitudes, with a strong inverse relationship being found for job satisfaction. Similarly, weak relationships are found when the relationship between employer assessments about operationalised practice and attitudes are examined. So while Guest and Peccei (1994) suggest these areas are important aspects of best practice HRM, this study finds them to be unrelated to attitudes when data are collected from employers. Put together these results suggest that if managers want to maximise employee attitudes, then implementing lots of practices is not sufficient. Practitioners need to be aware that the way they implement their HRM practices may be a more important determinant of employee attitudes than the number of practices they put in place. This builds on the research findings of other recent studies (Armstrong, 2001) that suggest it is possible that it is the quality of the practice that counts and not the quantity. It may be that practitioners may need to undertake regular attitudinal surveys to assess employee reactions to current HRM practice and assess these on a longitudinal basis to identify what is working and what is not. It was beyond the parameters of this study to examine the complex relationship between HRM practice, employee attitudes and business performance; it has, however, explored the narrower relationship between HRM practice (for the areas of good and safe working conditions, training and development, EEO and recruitment and selection) and three employee attitudes (organisational commitment, job satisfaction and organisational fairness). While regressions tell us nothing about the cause-effect nature of relationships between assessments of HRM practice and employee attitudes, these findings strongly suggest that incorporating the employees experience of HRM into analyses exploring the HRM practice, employee attitudes relationship will contribute further to our understanding about what aspects of HRM have the potential to yield the greatest performance outcomes. Arguably, more so, it would appear, than exploring this particular relationship solely using additive measures or employer self-re ports. This study has some limitations. This study found the standard deviations for assessments of HRM practice and work-related attitudes amongst employee groups within each organisation to be reasonably low, showing close agreement. Nonetheless the aggregated data has been developed from a relatively small sample, thus it may not be representative of the bulk of employee views. The evaluative nature of the questions used introduces the possibility of common method variance (i.e. an artificial correlation across questions due to mood or other contaminants (Fiorito, 2002)). Also, the HRM practices used in this study are supposedly best practice; however, there is still insufficient evidence available to confirm that they are indeed best practice. Finally, Gibb (2001) suggests effective HRM is about implementing best practice. While this may very well be true, it is clear from this study that simply introducing best practice, or even assessing the effectiveness of practice from the employers viewpoint, is no guarantee that they have been successfully implemented. If the organisations objective is to improve employees workplace attitudes, then possibly a better way to confirm which HRM practices are having the greatest impact, and hence are effective, is to correlate employees assessment of them with employees attitudes. Further studies in this area are now required. References Appelbaum, E., Berg, P. (2000), High performance work systems: giving workers a stake, in Blair, M., Kochan, T. (Eds),The New Relationship: Human Capital in the American Corporation, Brookings Institution Press, Washington, DC, . [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Armstrong, G. (2001), The Change Agenda: Performance through People, The New People Management, CODE, London, . [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Beer, M., Spector, B., Lawrence, P.R., Mills, D.Q., Walton, R.E. (1984), Managing Human Assets, Free Press, New York, NY, . [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Browne, J.H. (2000), Benchmarking HRM practices in healthy work organizations, American Business Review, Vol. 18 No.2, pp.54-61. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Cully, M., Woodland, S., OReilly, A., Dix, G. (2000), Britain at Work: As Depicted by the 1998 Workplace Employee Relations Survey, Routledge, London, . [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Delaney, J.T., Huselid, M.A. (1996), The impact of human resource management practices on perceptions of organizational performance, Academy of Management Journal, Vol. 39 No.4, pp.949-69. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Ehrlich, C.J. (1994), Creating an employer-employee relationship for the future, Human Resource Management, Vol. 33 No.3, pp.491-501. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Fiorito, J. (2002), Human resource management practices and worker desires for union representation, in Bennett, J., Kaufman, B. (Eds),The Future of Private Sector Unionism in the United States, M.E. Sharpe, Armonk, NY, . [Manual request] [Infotrieve] (1984), in Fombrun, C., Tichy, N., Devanna, M. (Eds),Strategic Human Resource Management, Wiley, New York, NY, . [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Gibb, S. (2001), The state of human resource management: evidence from employees view of HRM systems and staff, Employee Relations, Vol. 23 No.4, pp.318-36. [Manual request] [Infotrieve] Greenberg, J. (1990), Organisational justice: yesterday, today and tomorrow, Journal of Management, Vol. 16 pp.399-43 Relationship Between HRM and Employee Attitude Relationship Between HRM and Employee Attitude The relationship between HRM practice and employee work-related attitudes Introduction The concept of human resource management (HRM) has received focussed attention for around 20 years, with the catalyst being that many US companies found they were being rivalled and in some instances overtaken, in markets they had dominated (Ehrlich, 1994, p. 492). As Lodge (1985, p. 319) observes: By the early 1980s there was still little disagreement that US corporate managers, employees and trade unions would have to change their ways in order to compete successfully for markets in America and abroad. Harvard university academics introduced a new compulsory component of HRM into their MBA syllabus and reinforced this so-called Harvard Model with influential books and articles (Beer et al., 1984; Walton, 1985b; Walton and Lawrence, 1985). While there would surely have been a genuine desire to help US business, US society, and even US employees, there was also a long-term effort to ensure that the Harvard Business School faculty provided leadership in human resource management (Walton and Lawrence, 1985, p. xx). The Harvard concept stresses that HRM should lead to employee commitment not simply as a means to employer objectives of improved productivity and profits, but because the fulfilment of many employee needs is taken as a goal rather than merely a means to an end (Walton, 1985a, p. 49). At about the same time as the Harvard concept was being developed another viewpoint was being promulgated by academics who supported a strategic concept of HRM, with the major work edited by Fombrun et al. (1984). This work emphasises that the four generic human resource activities of all organisations: selection/promotion/placement process; reward process; development process; and appraisal process (Tichy et al., 1984, p. 26) need to be strategically aligned with the organisations overall strategic objectives. Hard and soft HRM British writers have focused on the differences between the Harvard commitment concept of HRM and the strategic HRM concept. Keenoy (1990, p. 368) sees the Harvard concept as philosophically grounded in the recognition of multiple stakeholders and the belief that the practice and benefits of HRM can be achieved through neo-pluralist mechanisms, while the strategic concept is almost uniformly unitarist in orientation and displays a quite singular endorsement of managerial values. The former is frequently referred to as soft HRM, while the latter is hard HRM. In theory, soft HRM fulfils employee needs as an end in itself, and the favourable attitudes generated from the use of appropriate HRM practices (Guest, 1997) together with communication, motivation and leadership (Storey, 1987, p. 6), result in commitment to the organisation and improved performance. Hard HRM is only concerned with the effective utilisation of employees (Guest, 2002) and emphasises the quantitative, calculative and business strategic aspects of managing the head count resource in as natural a way as for any other economic factor (Storey, 1987, p. 6). If the reality of soft HRM practice was that it produced the benefits referred to in the rhetoric of academic evangelists such as Richard Walton then it should be highly favoured by both employees and employers. Questions have been raised by a number of researchers, however, about the ability of soft HRM to achieve these benefits. There are two concerns. The first is that the real motive behind its introduction is to undermine unions (Sisson, 1994). Indeed, going back to the introduction of the Harvard concept of soft HRM, Lawrence (1985, p. 362) writes about a seminal colloquium on HRM between 35 senior executives and Harvard academics. He claims that the question as to whether HRM was designed to keep the union out was emphatically denied, and he protested that all but three of the firms represented were at least partially unionised, with several having had a significant number of units of both kinds, with their older plants unionised and the newer ones not. An unreasonable interpr etation therefore would be that these leaders of commitment HRM will happily dispense with unions given the opportunity. Indeed, Lawrence (1985, p. 362) admits that there was a general view that in a well-managed unit with decision-sharing, a union was not needed to represent employee interests. Guest (1990, p. 389) concludes, the main impact of HRM in the United States may have been to provide a smokescreen behind which management can introduce non-unionism or obtain significant concessions from trade unions. The second concern is that meeting the needs of employees has never been an objective in itself, and has simply been the normative view of what Harvard academics would like to see as the employment relationship. Truss et al. (1997, p. 70) in a study of soft and hard models of HRM, concluded that even if the rhetoric of HRM is soft, the reality is almost always hard, with the interests of the organisation prevailing over those of the individual. Similar conclusions have been reached by Keenoy (1990), Poole and Mansfield (1992), Guest (1995) and Legge (1995a, b, 1998). If the soft model of HRM has validity, then there should be a clear relationship between the experience of soft HRM practice and positive employee attitudes (reflecting their needs are being met) and increasing employee commitment as well as improved productivity. Surprisingly, however, most of the research and reporting on HRM has ignored the views of employees. Legge (1998, p. 14) points out: when reading accounts of HRM practice in the UK and North America it is noticeable the extent to which the data are (literally) the voices of management. Guest (1999, p. 5) agrees, claiming that from its conception human resource management reflected a management agenda to the neglect of workers concerns. Some studies have considered employee reactions to HRM (Gibb, 2001; Appelbaum and Berg, 2000; Mabey et al., 1998) but Guest (2002, p. 335) is perceptive in his criticism that a feature of both advocates and critics of HRM is their neglect of direct evidence about the role and reactions of w orkers. Even the exceptions noted which gave employee reactions to HRM did not relate the employee experience of HRM practices to their reactions, and Guest (1997) argues for a research agenda that addresses this gap. This paper aims to contribute to this gap by fulfilling two major objectives. The first is to add to the limited number of studies which have tested to see if there is a relationship between HRM practice and positive employee attitudes. The second objective is to see if there is a significantly stronger relationship between HRM practice and employee attitudes if employee perceptions of HRM practice are taken as the measure of HRM rather than employer perceptions, which has been the approach taken in general by previous researchers. HRM practice and employee work-related attitudes The soft model of HRM, as stated previously, suggests a relationship exists between the use of appropriate HRM practices and positive employee attitudes, and while theoretically these relationships remain poorly developed (Guest, 1997, 2001), a number of attitudes are nonetheless widely considered to be an outcome of soft HRM. For example, levels of job satisfaction, which is the affective perception that results from the achievement of desired outcomes (Harber et al., 1997), are found to be related to levels of HRM practice (Guest, 2002; Ting, 1997). High levels of employee commitment have also been found to be related to the use of appropriate HRM practice (Guest, 2002), and results from investing in HRM practices which benefit employees. For example, the provision of opportunities for training and skill development benefits the employee by equipping them with the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes to function autonomously and responsibly (Guest, 2002). Furthermore, it impro ves retention and enables them to cope with change in the work environment (Guest, 2002). Organisational fairness is the term used to describe the role of fairness as it directly relates to the workplace and is concerned with the ways employees determine if they have been treated fairly in their jobs and the ways in which those determinations influence other work-related variables (Moorman, 1991, p. 845). The HRM systems, policies, and procedures that operate in an organisation have been identified as impacting on an individuals perceptions of bias and fairness (Kurland and Egan, 1999; Greenberg, 1990). Studies show that where employees believe they are treated fairly in the workplace then they hold positive attitudes towards the organisation (Moorman, 1991), whereas HRM practices that are perceived to be unfair have been found to result in the employee feeling bewildered and betrayed and thus less committed (Schappe, 1996). As far as the relationship between HRM practice and employee attitudes is concerned, the HRM practice dimension has been measured by collecting data from employers in one of the two ways using additive measures of HRM practice or self-reports about the extent to which particular HRM practices have been operationalised. A possible third approach would be to collect employee views about the operationalisation of HRM practice and then relate these reactions to their attitudes. These approaches are described below. The additive approach To date the most common approach for assessing the relationship between HRM practice and employee work-related attitudes is the additive approach. This involves employers indicating, using a yes/no response format, which HRM practices from a predetermined list currently operate in their organisations. The yes responses are then added together, and the assumption is that a higher sum indicates better HRM. Researchers using the additive approach usually correlate the total number of practices with the HRM outcomes being examined. Research exploring this relationship show a strong correlation between high numbers of HRM practice and positive employee attitudes (Fiorito, 2002; Guest, 1999; Guest and Conway, 2002; Appelbaum and Berg, 2000). While this approach is frequently used, it has attracted criticism (Fiorito, 2002; Guest, 1997, 2002). The additive approach is very simplistic. If an employer claims a practice is utilised there is no differentiation on the basis on how well, or to what extent the practice exists. For example, there could be token training and development, or a high level of commitment to a professional and effective training and development programme. Both examples are credited as a yes. This perceived weakness has led some researchers to use employer self-reports about the strength of HRM practice. Employer self-reports about the strength of HRM practice Guest and Peccei (1994) suggest that an improvement on the additive approach is to assess the extent or strength of practice using response bands such as those contained in Likert scales. Such an approach sees employers self-reporting, either on the extent they consider particular HRM practices to be effective (Delaney and Huselid, 1996), or alternatively on the extent to which HRM practices have been operationalised (i.e. to what extent practices are practised) in their workplace (Kane et al., 1999). Guest (2001, p. 1099) claims further research is needed to test the extent that employer and employee views on HRM practices coincide or differ. Specifically he suggests: There is now a need for more research comparing the responses of managers responsible for developing and overseeing HRM practice and employees to identify levels of agreement about the operation of practices such evidence as it is possible to glean from reports about levels of autonomy and consultation suggest that levels of agreement might be quite low. Support for this assertion has already been found. For example, Appelbaum and Bergs (2000) study comparing supervisor and employee perceptions about participative initiatives in US organisations found wide differences. Similarly, Kane et al. (1999) also found evidence of perceptual differences about HRM between different organisational stakeholders. While managers and employers are important stakeholders, so too are employees. This has led to a strong call for employee voice to be heard in HRM research (Guest, 2001). Employee self-reports about the strength of HRM practice Given the apparent perceptual differences between employers and employees perceptions of HRM then a third approach that could be used would see employees reports on the strength of operationalised HRM practice analysed in relation to their levels of work-related attitudes. There is now growing support for assessing HRM from the employee perspective emerging in the literature (Fiorito, 2002; Gibb, 2001; Guest, 2001), and given that where the concern is employee attitudes, then it is intuitively logical to relate that to employee rather than employer perceptions of the effectiveness of HRM policies and practices. Method The most common approach employed in studies assessing the relationship between HRM practice and employee work-related attitudes is the survey (Cully et al., 2000; Guest, 1999), and this is the method of data collection used in this study. Four areas of HRM practice are examined good and safe working conditions, training and development, equal employment opportunities (EEO), and recruitment and selection. These areas of HRM have been selected because they have previously been identified as those likely to have the greatest impact on employee behaviour and attitudes (Guest, 2001). Three employee work-related attitudes are examined organisational commitment, job satisfaction and organisational fairness. These attitudes are generally considered to be desirable outcomes that result from the use of soft HRM (Meyer and Smith, 2000; Guest, 1997). Measurement Three approaches are used to measure HRM practice an additive measure completed by the employer, and two perceptual measures, one completed by employers and one completed by employees. All three measures relate to practices characterised in the literature as soft HRM or best practice HRM (Guest, 1999; Guest and Peccei, 1992; Johnson, 2000; Kane et al., 1999). They are employee-centred (i.e. they should produce benefits for employees when operationalised), and thus should impact on employee work-related attitudes. The additive measure, as stated, is the one most commonly used in research of this type. The additive measure used in this study asks employers to indicate, using a yes/no response format, which practices, from a comprehensive list of 80 practices (20 for each functional area covered), currently operate in their organisation (for example, Do you consult employees on their training needs?). A 20-item scale consisting of statements about HRM practice is used to assess the strength of HRM practices (five items for each of the four functional areas). Respondents are asked to indicate, using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree, the extent they consider each practice occurs in their organisation, for example, EEO is promoted within this organisation (see Appendix 1 for a full list of statements). The same scale is used for both the employer and the employee groups, with the wording amended to reflect their different perspectives. Employer and employee assessments of HRM using this measure are, therefore, concerned with the judgements these groups make about the extent a particular HRM practice has been operationalised in the workplace. The ÃŽ ± coefficients for the five item measures relating to each of the four areas of HRM practice examined ranged from 0.83 to 0.88, suggesting high internal consistency exists (Browne, 2000). The s tatements about HRM practice on the perceptual measure closely reflect the ones used in the additive measure, but there is not a direct correspondence as that would have resulted in an excessively long measure. Three widely accepted measures of employee attitudes are used. Guest (1997) suggests organisational commitment should be measured using the standard measure developed by Mowday et al. (1979) the organisational commitment questionnaire (OCQ) because this scale captures the extent the employee identifies with the organisation, their desire to remain in the organisation and their willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organisation. An adapted and shortened version of the OCQ is used in this study to measure organisational commitment. Again, respondents are asked to indicate the extent to which they agree with each of the statements using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree (ÃŽ ±=0.8535). To measure job satisfaction, an adapted and shortened form of the Minnesota satisfaction questionnaire (Weiss et al., 1967) is used. The scale has six items and respondents are asked to indicate how satisfied they are with respect to each of the statements, using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1=very dissatisfied to 5=very satisfied (ÃŽ ±=0.8664). While organisational fairness has two dimensions distributive and procedural this study is concerned only with procedural fairness and HRM policy and practice. The measure used is an adapted and shortened six-item version of the procedural justice scale used by Moorman (1991). This measures employees perceptions about the way formal procedures are carried out. Respondents are asked to indicate the extent to which they agree with each of the statements using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree (ÃŽ ±=0.9160). Employer and employee respondents were also asked to provide a range of demographic information. Analysis Data are analysed using SPSS, Version 11, using matched employer and aggregated employee data from 37 organisations. Correlations, using Pearsons r, are completed to explore the relationships between HRM practice and employee attitudes. The multiple linear regression technique is used to explore the differential impacts of the three approaches being tested. The sample In total, 234 organisations were originally contacted to participate in this study. A total of 40 organisations agreed to participate. The person most responsible for operationalising HRM practice was requested to complete the employer survey. Employee participation was voluntary, and the company fully endorsed their participation. The employer participant was requested to distribute the surveys to a representative sample of their workforce, in terms of occupational classification, ethnicity and gender. The targeted population of employees consisted of a total of 1,075 full- and part-time employees from the 40 participating organisations. A total of 626 employees responded (a response rate of 58 per cent) by completing the survey and returning it in the reply-paid envelope provided. In total, 37 usable matched sets of data were obtained. These 37 matched data sets comprise one completed employer questionnaire (total usable employer responses=37) and on average 15 employee questionnai res for each organisation (total usable employee responses=572). The number of actual employee responses received for each organisation varied with workplace size, and ranged from eight to 31. The demographics for the employer and employee samples are reported in Table I. New Zealand is a relatively small country and organisations employing in excess of 100 employees are usually classified as large, with those having between 50 and 99 employees classified as medium and organisations with under 50 employees as small. Three-fifths of the organisations participating in this study can be classified as large; one-fifth are medium, and the remaining five small. Of the 37 participating organisations, 19 are located in the private sector, 18 in the public sector. Around 35 per cent of the participating organisations are located in the service industry, with this group being evenly represented across both sectors. All other organisations are classified in the manufacturing, transport, retail, sales, education and health industries. Both the employer and the employee samples are reasonably a representative of organisations and the composition of the workforce in New Zealand, with the only notable exception being the employee sample is skewed in terms of occupation towards professional and semi-professional groups. Results The first analysis examines the relationship between additive measures of HRM practice and attitudes. The number of practices for each functional area varied considerably between organisations. Generally it is found that there are relatively high levels of practice for the areas of good and safe working conditions (M=15.95, SD=3.22), training and development (M=16.77, SD=2.76), along with recruitment and selection (M=16.52, SD=2.50). EEO is the one area, on the other hand, where a considerably lower mean level of practice exists (M=12.17, SD=5.96). According to prior research, high numbers of HRM practice are associated with positive employee attitudes (Guest, 1999). The results of the analysis for this relationship are reported in Table II. These findings differ from those previously reported. Using aggregated employee means, when levels of organisational commitment (M=3.72, SD=0.78), job satisfaction (M=3.72, SD=0.79) and organisational fairness (M=3.70, SD=0.86) are correlated with the combined additive measure of HRM practice, the results show that higher index scores in the number of HRM practices are not related to higher levels of organisational commitment (r=0.155, df=35, p=>0.05), job satisfaction (r=0.085, df=35, p=>0.05) or organisational fairness (r=0.146, df=35, p=>0.05). When this relationship is examined by functional area the correlations are also found not to be significant. Next the relationship between HRM practice and employee attitudes is examined using first employer self-reports, and second employee self-reports. These results are also reported in Table II. Statistically significant correlations are found to exist between the three attitudes measured and employee assessments of HRM practice for all the functional areas examined. However, no significant correlations are found between employer self-reports about the strength of HRM practice and employee attitudes. Data are then analysed using a regression technique, enabling the predictive qualities of each of the three approaches for assessing HRM practice to be explored. The model used for regressions is shown in Figure 1. All the measures of HRM practices were entered into a multiple regression[1] equation so that the character of the relationship between different measures of HRM practice and employee attitudes could be explored. It is found that nearly 51 per cent of the variance in organisational commitment (R 2=0.506, p The results of the regressions for the three measures of HRM practice, along with the three measures of employee attitudes, are presented in Table III. When the results of the regression for the three different measures of HRM practice are analysed it becomes evident that employee assessments have the greatest level of predictive power for attitudes. The regression reveals that numbers of HRM practice and employer assessments about the strength of HRM practice account for very little of the variance in attitudes. On the other hand, employee assessments of HRM practice appear to be very influential. Around 47 per cent of the variance in organisational commitment is explained by employee assessments of practice across the four HRM areas examined, with even larger and equally significant levels of variance being explained by this for job satisfaction and organisational fairness. If we exclude employee assessments related to EEO from the analysis, as it uniformly records the lowest ÃŽ ² across all three attitudes, the ÃŽ ² statistic for the remaining three functional areas of HRM practice implies that for every increment in employee assessments, levels of attitudes increase by between 0.17 and 0.34. The most statistically significant and consistent increments are in relation to employee assessments of good and safe working conditions, along with training and development, and these are found to apply to all aspects of work-related attitudes measured. Also worth noting is that, not surprisingly, assessments of recruitment and selection practices accounted for the largest variance in levels of organisational fairness. Discussion and concluding remarks Consistent with the work of Appelbaum and Berg (2000), Cully et al. (2000) and Guest (1999), this study also finds that a significant relationship exists between HRM practice and employee work-related attitudes. There is a strong statistically significant relationship when HRM is researched from the employee perspective. However, there was no significant relationship when HRM practice was measured using the additive approach or employer self-reports. These results have implications for current approaches used to assess the HRM practice-employee work-related attitudes relationship. This study demonstrates that by far the greatest correlate of employee attitudes are employees own assessments of the strength of HRM practice. Interestingly, higher levels of HRM practice, using an additive measure, are not found to be significantly associated with attitudes across any of the four functional areas of HRM examined. In fact, it is revealed that higher levels of HRM practice are in some cases related to decreased levels of job satisfaction and organisational fairness. For example, looking at the data for each functional HRM area, it is possible that higher levels of EEO practice may actually have no, or even a negative, effect on employee attitudes, with a strong inverse relationship being found for job satisfaction. Similarly, weak relationships are found when the relationship between employer assessments about operationalised practice and attitudes are examined. So while Guest and Peccei (1994) suggest these areas are important aspects of best practice HRM, this study finds them to be unrelated to attitudes when data are collected from employers. Put together these results suggest that if managers want to maximise employee attitudes, then implementing lots of practices is not sufficient. Practitioners need to be aware that the way they implement their HRM practices may be a more important determinant of employee attitudes than the number of practices they put in place. This builds on the research findings of other recent studies (Armstrong, 2001) that suggest it is possible that it is the quality of the practice that counts and not the quantity. It may be that practitioners may need to undertake regular attitudinal surveys to assess employee reactions to current HRM practice and assess these on a longitudinal basis to identify what is working and what is not. It was beyond the parameters of this study to examine the complex relationship between HRM practice, employee attitudes and business performance; it has, however, explored the narrower relationship between HRM practice (for the areas of good and safe working conditions, training and development, EEO and recruitment and selection) and three employee attitudes (organisational commitment, job satisfaction and organisational fairness). While regressions tell us nothing about the cause-effect nature of relationships between assessments of HRM practice and employee attitudes, these findings strongly suggest that incorporating the employees experience of HRM into analyses exploring the HRM practice, employee attitudes relationship will contribute further to our understanding about what aspects of HRM have the potential to yield the greatest performance outcomes. Arguably, more so, it would appear, than exploring this particular relationship solely using additive measures or employer self-re ports. This study has some limitations. This study found the standard deviations for assessments of HRM practice and work-related attitudes amongst employee groups within each organisation to be reasonably low, showing close agreement. Nonetheless the aggregated data has been developed from a relatively small sample, thus it may not be representative of the bulk of employee views. The evaluative nature of the questions used introduces the possibility of common method variance (i.e. an artificial correlation across questions due to mood or other contaminants (Fiorito, 2002)). Also, the HRM practices used in this study are supposedly best practice; however, there is still insufficient evidence available to confirm that they are indeed best practice. Finally, Gibb (2001) suggests effective HRM is about implementing best practice. While this may very well be true, it is clear from this study that simply introducing best practice, or even assessing the effectiveness of practice from the employers viewpoint, is no guarantee that they have been successfully implemented. If the organisations objective is to improve employees workplace attitudes, then possibly a better way to confirm which HRM practices are having the greatest impact, and hence are effective, is to correlate employees assessment of them with employees attitudes. 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